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\title{The 1769 Transit of Venus}
 

\begin{document}
\maketitle
 
The day was June 3, 1769.   Venus was between the Earth and the Sun, a situation 
that is called a ``transit of Venus''.   When that happens, Venus is visible as a 
small dark spot in front of the sun.  With a telescope, you can project the sun's
image on a screen (it's too bright to look at directly),  and hopefully you can 
note the exact moment when Venus appears as a dark spot at the edge of the sun, 
and the exact spot later on when it appears to leave the other edge of the sun.
Before it lines up with the edge of the sun,  and after it lines up with the other edge,
you can't see it because its dark side is towards the Earth.

\begin{figure}[h]
\caption{A photograph taken during the transit of Venus in 2012}
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\insertimage{VenusTransit.jpg}{0.6}
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\end{figure}

Depending where you are on the Earth,  the moment when Venus first appears at the 
edge of the sun should occur at slightly different times, because the line between 
the edge of the sun and Venus can only hit Earth along a (curved) line.   By knowing 
the distances and angles between two observation points, then, we can work out how 
far away Venus is.

In 1769,  nobody still believed that the Earth was the center of the universe. 
Even though there was still no direct observational evidence of the Earth's motion,
the beauty of Newton's law of universal gravitation and his derivation of Kepler's
three laws about the motions of the planets from his law of gravitation had convinced
all scientists that the planets move around the sun in ellipses.   Kepler's third law
connects the size of their orbits with the length of their ``year'' (the time it takes
them to go around the sun).  Thus,  the whole structure of the solar system was known
except for the actual size of it!   If one distance could be measured (say the distance
from Earth to Venus, or Earth to Mars, or to any one planet) then all the other distances
in the solar system could be calculated.   But measuring any one distance had turned
out to be too difficult, so far.

Newton's work had been done in the late 1600s,  and it had enabled those who understood it 
to calculate and predict the motions of the planets.   The transits of Venus are fairly 
rare (because the orbit of Venus is slightly tilted to the plane of Earth's orbit, so 
you have to wait until the two planets line up close to the line of intersection of 
the planes of their orbits).   Transits of Venus occur in pairs,  about one pair per
century.  The Royal Astronomer of England,  Edmond Halley (whom you may know as the 
discoverer of Halley's comet) wrote a paper in 1716, predicting the transits of Venus
on June 6, 1761, and June 3, 1769, and urging the observation of those transits to establish 
the scale of the solar system.  He pointed out that if those opportunities were missed,
the next chance wouldn't occur until December 9, 1874.  He was 59 when he wrote that 
paper in 1716, so he knew that he wouldn't be alive to observe those transits:  he was
writing to a future generation.   

In 1769,  the astronomers didn't drop the ball.  The story is told on p.64 of \cite{hirschfeld},
and that source is closely followed here.   Observers from eight nations were in 
England, Baja California, Noray, Peru, Hudson Bay, the Cape of Good Hope, Siberia,
and the East Indies.   Nevil Maskelyne, Astronomer Royal in 1769, was at the peak 
of the mountain on St. Helena,
the island off Africa where Napoleon was exiled.  Halley had tried to observe the 
transit of Mercury there in 1677, when he was only nineteen.    Captain James Cook,
in has famous voyage across the Pacific in the {\em Endeavor}, had dropped 
astronomer Charles Green in Tahiti.  French astronomer Guillame Le Gentil 
had tried to go to India to observe the 1761 transit, but he didn't manage it,
because the French settlement at Pondicherry, where he planned to observe, fell to 
the British in a battle.   Not wishing to miss the 1769 transit, he decided to stay 
in India--but on the fateful day, June 3, a cloud bank blocked his view.  He returned
to France, but found that he had been declared dead, his assets had been distributed,
and his post as astronomer was filled by someone else!   Charles Mason and Jeremiah 
Dixon, famous for the Maxon-Dixon line in Pennsylvania,  were in South Africa to observe
the transit of Venus.  Not everyone had bad luck:  150 observations of the transit were made.
When these results were analyzed, the ``astronomical unit'' (distance from Earth to Sun)
was found to be about 91 million miles.  (Today's value is 93 million.)  The
results were somewhat disappointing in their accuracy, as it proved difficult to judge
the precise moment when Venus's silhouette entered the solar disk, due to atmospheric
turbulence and optical distortions.  But with 150 measurements, something could be said,
and at last people knew this size of the solar system, for the first time in history.

There were transits of Venus in 2004 and 2012.  You can search the web for images;
one is at the top of this page.  It's also worth mentioning that Cassini,  director of the 
Royal Observatory in Paris, had tried to observe the parallax of Mars, by observing the 
position of Mars from Paris and (with the help of an assistant) from an island off the coast of 
South America at the same time.  He thought he had succeeded, but others were not convinced;
it was a difficult observation and only two people were involved.
He got the value 89 million miles for the astronomical unit,  so perhaps he wasn't as far off
as some people thought.   Because he was the director of the Royal Observatory, his value carried
a certain authority, but in a sign of the progress of science, authority alone was no longer enough.



\begin{thebibliography}{99}
\bibitem{hirschfeld}
Hirschfeld, Alan W., {\em Parallax: The Race to Measure the Cosmos}, Holt Publishers, New York, 2002.
\end{thebibliography}
  
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